✎ 孤立系统

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<p>
孤立系统是与其外界没有任何联系的热力学系统。系统的边界不允许系统与环境进行物质和能量的传递，其物质和能量总量不随时间变化。孤立系统内部压强、温度以及物质分布会均一化。而系统所有的均一化过程最终会使系统达到热力学平衡。
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<p>
孤立系统在现实中并不存在（唯一的例外可能是宇宙整体），因为系统内部物质和外界物质间会存在像万有引力这样的相互作用。然而，现实中的热力学系统可以在一定时间内处于趋近于孤立的状态。这时孤立系统就可以成为拟合现实世界情况的一个十分有用的模型。而在构造某些现象的数学模型时，它也是一个可以接受的理想化模型。玻尔兹曼在证明H定理（这一定理可以验证熵增加原理）时使用了玻尔兹曼方程。而这一方程只有在系统孤立时才能严格成立。
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<h2 class="page-header">参考文献</h2>
<div class="level2">
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<li class="level1"> Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3, p. 20.</li>
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<li class="level1">  Perrot, Pierre. A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.</li>
<li class="level1"> The Blue Book on Environment by Richard Dawkins</li>
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<li class="level1">  Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, third edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 0-521-25445-0, pp. 46–47.</li>
<li class="level1">  Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3, pp. 19–23.</li>
<li class="level1">  I.M.Kolesnikov; V.A.Vinokurov; S.I.Kolesnikov. Thermodynamics of Spontaneous and Non-Spontaneous Processes. Nova science Publishers. 2001: 136. ISBN 1-56072-904-X.</li>
<li class="level1"> A System and Its Surroundings. ChemWiki. University of California - Davis. [May 2012].</li>
<li class="level1">  Hyperphysics. The Department of Physics and Astronomy of Georgia State University. [May 2012].</li>
<li class="level1">  Bryan Sanctuary. Open, Closed and Isolated Systems in Physical Chemistry,. Foundations of Quantum Mechanics and Physical Chemistry. McGill University (Montreal). [May 2012].</li>
<li class="level1">  Material and Energy Balances for Engineers and Environmentalists (PDF). Imperial College Press. : 7 [May 2012].</li>
<li class="level1"> Abbott, M.M.; van Hess, H.G. Thermodynamics with Chemical Applications 2nd. McGraw Hill. 1989.</li>
<li class="level1"> Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics 8th. Wiley. 2008.</li>
<li class="level1"> Moran, Michael J.; Shapiro, Howard N. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics 6th. Wiley. 2008.</li>
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